What is reading comprehension?
Word reading
decoding words accurately and automatically
Vocabulary
knowing what words mean, including in context
Background knowledge
what a pupil already knows about the topic
Monitoring
noticing when something doesn't make sense, and fixing it
Reading comprehension means understanding what a text says, working out what it implies and connecting it to what you already know. A pupil who can read every word of a passage aloud, but can't explain what happened or why, hasn't yet understood it. Comprehension is the point of reading. It's how pupils learn from texts in every subject, and those who find it difficult can quickly fall behind across the curriculum.
The most widely used way of explaining it is the Simple View of Reading. First set out by researchers Philip Gough and William Tunmer in 1986, and used in the Department for Education's Reading Framework, it describes reading comprehension as the product of two things:
- Word reading – the ability to recognise and decode the words on the page
- Language comprehension – the ability to understand spoken language, including vocabulary, grammar and background knowledge
If either is weak, comprehension suffers. A pupil with a rich vocabulary will still struggle if decoding is slow, and a confident decoder will still struggle if they don't know what the words mean.
Why reading comprehension matters
Reading comprehension sits at the top of the complete spectrum of reading, which runs from early phonics and decoding, through fluency, to understanding complex texts. Each stage supports the next, so when comprehension breaks down, the cause often lies further back.
Fluency is a good example. When pupils read accurately and at a steady pace, they have more attention free for meaning. FFT Education Datalab's study of reading fluency, drawing on over 340,000 assessments from more than 110,000 pupils across 684 schools, found a strong link between fluency in Year 6 and results in the KS2 reading test (r=0.68). Of pupils reading below 100 words correctly per minute, 42% met age-related expectations in the test, compared with 95% of those reading above 130 words per minute.
Comprehension matters well beyond English lessons. From KS2 onwards, pupils learn more and more through reading in every subject. Those who struggle to understand texts find the wider curriculum harder to access, and the gap tends to widen as texts become more demanding.
Comprehension can also be taught effectively. The Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) rates reading comprehension strategies as high impact for very low cost in its Teaching and Learning Toolkit, with an average impact of around seven months' additional progress.
Reading comprehension in KS1 (Years 1-2)
In KS1, reading comprehension focuses on understanding stories, poems and non-fiction that pupils hear and, increasingly, read for themselves. Because most pupils are still securing phonics, much of their comprehension develops through listening to and discussing texts read aloud, at a level above what they can read independently.
The National Curriculum sets out separate expectations for Year 1 and Year 2.
Year 1 reading comprehension
In Year 1, reading comprehension focuses on enjoying and talking about texts, and linking what pupils hear and read to what they already know. Pupils should be taught to:
- listen to and discuss a wide range of poems, stories and non-fiction
- become familiar with key stories, fairytales and traditional tales, joining in with predictable phrases
- discuss word meanings, linking new words to those they already know
- check that the text makes sense as they read, and correct inaccurate reading
- make inferences from what characters say and do, and predict what might happen next
Year 2 reading comprehension
In Year 2, reading comprehension focuses on discussing a wider range of texts, including the sequence of events and how information is related. Pupils should be taught to:
- discuss the sequence of events in books and how items of information are related
- retell a wider range of stories, fairy stories and traditional tales
- be introduced to non-fiction books that are structured in different ways
- recognise simple recurring literary language, and discuss favourite words and phrases
- answer and ask questions, make inferences and predict what might happen
Reading comprehension in KS2 (Years 3-6)
In KS2, reading comprehension becomes the main focus of reading teaching. As decoding becomes secure, pupils move from learning to read to reading to learn. They use texts independently to build knowledge and tackle longer, more complex writing across the curriculum.
The National Curriculum groups KS2 expectations into two-year bands, Years 3–4 (lower KS2) and Years 5–6 (upper KS2). The skills listed under each year below apply across the whole band.
Year 3 reading comprehension
In Year 3, reading comprehension focuses on understanding the books pupils can read independently, as they begin the lower KS2 programme (Years 3–4). Across Years 3 and 4, pupils should be taught to:
- read books that are structured in different ways, for a range of purposes
- use dictionaries to check the meaning of words
- explain the meaning of words in context
- ask questions to improve their understanding
- retrieve and record information from non-fiction
Year 4 reading comprehension
In Year 4, reading comprehension focuses on securing the lower KS2 programme before pupils move into upper KS2. Alongside the skills above, pupils should be taught to:
- infer characters' feelings, thoughts and motives from their actions, and justify inferences with evidence
- predict what might happen from details stated and implied
- identify main ideas drawn from more than one paragraph, and summarise them
- identify how language, structure and presentation contribute to meaning
- identify themes and conventions in a wide range of books
Year 5 reading comprehension
In Year 5, reading comprehension focuses on applying what pupils have already learnt to more complex writing, as they begin the upper KS2 programme (Years 5–6). Across Years 5 and 6, pupils should be taught to:
- read myths, legends, modern fiction, fiction from our literary heritage, and books from other cultures and traditions
- discuss and evaluate how authors use language, including figurative language, and its impact on the reader
- make comparisons within and across books
- distinguish between statements of fact and opinion
- explore the meaning of words in context
Year 6 reading comprehension
In Year 6, reading comprehension focuses on securing the upper KS2 programme, ahead of the KS2 reading test and the move to secondary school. Alongside the skills above, pupils should be taught to:
- summarise main ideas from more than one paragraph, identifying key details that support them
- justify their inferences and views with evidence from the text
- retrieve, record and present information from non-fiction
- take part in discussions about books, building on others' ideas and challenging views courteously
- explain and discuss their understanding, including through formal presentations and debates
When a pupil struggles with comprehension, check word reading first. The difficulty often comes from slow or inaccurate decoding rather than from understanding itself. FFT's Reading Assessment Programme (RAP), with over 1 million assessments completed, helps you identify comprehension gaps alongside decoding and fluency, so you can see where the barrier lies.
Reading comprehension in KS3 (Years 7-8)
In KS3, reading comprehension focuses on understanding increasingly challenging texts independently and reading them critically. The National Curriculum sets out one programme of study for the whole of KS3 (Years 7–9) rather than one for each year. It places weight on whole books, literature from different periods and how writers create meaning. The skills listed under Year 7 and Year 8 below apply across the whole of KS3.
Year 7 reading comprehension
In Year 7, reading comprehension focuses on understanding increasingly challenging texts, as pupils begin the KS3 programme. Across KS3, pupils should be taught to:
- read a wide range of fiction and non-fiction, including whole books, short stories, poems and plays
- learn new vocabulary, relating it to words they know and using context and dictionaries
- make inferences and refer to evidence in the text
- use what they know about a text's purpose, audience and context to support understanding
- check their understanding to make sure what they've read makes sense
Not every pupil arrives in Year 7 reading at the expected standard. For subject specialists, it isn't always clear whether a pupil's difficulty lies in decoding, fluency, vocabulary or comprehension itself.
Year 8 reading comprehension
In Year 8, reading comprehension focuses on reading increasingly challenging material independently and critically, as pupils continue the KS3 programme. Alongside the skills above, pupils should be taught to:
- understand how figurative language, vocabulary choice, grammar and text structure present meaning
- study setting, plot and characterisation, and the effects of these
- recognise a range of poetic conventions and how they're used
- make critical comparisons across texts
- study a range of authors, including at least two in depth each year
The government has confirmed a new statutory reading test for Year 8 pupils in England, assessing fluency and comprehension. It's expected from the 2028/29 academic year, so schools will need reliable reading data across Years 7 and 8.
For secondary schools, the first step is knowing which pupils are reading below age-related expectations when they arrive, and why. FFT's Reading Assessment Programme measures reading on one consistent scale from Year 1 to Year 8, so you can identify pupils who need support at transition, including those with decoding or fluency gaps, and start that support early.
Reading comprehension expectations at a glance
| Year group | Key stage | Comprehension focus | Example skills |
|---|---|---|---|
| Year 1 | KS1 | Enjoying and discussing texts | Linking word meanings; simple inference and prediction |
| Year 2 | KS1 | Sequence and connections | Sequencing events; asking and answering questions |
| Year 3 | Lower KS2 | Understanding books read independently | Words in context; asking questions; retrieval |
| Year 4 | Lower KS2 | Securing lower KS2 skills | Justifying inferences; summarising across paragraphs |
| Year 5 | Upper KS2 | Applying skills to more complex writing | Figurative language; fact and opinion; comparing books |
| Year 6 | Upper KS2 | Securing upper KS2 skills | Summarising key details; justifying views with evidence |
| Year 7 | KS3 | Understanding increasingly challenging texts | Vocabulary in context; inference with evidence; purpose and audience |
| Year 8 | KS3 | Reading challenging texts | Language, structure and form; comparing texts |